Ewen & Tlale Secondly, it may mean that the intra-oral pressure is relatively low at the time when the closure is released so that at the moment of release the initial airflow is ingressive (Hardcastle & Brasington 1978). S. K. Pretoria: Via Afrika. In Mbukushu K333, the one series of clicks is reported to be pronounced either as dental, palatal or [post-]alveolar sounds (Fisch 1998). At vowel onset, the F0 difference between High and Low tones after a set of non-depressor consonants is 22 Hz, but a High tone onset after depressor consonants is 44 Hz lower than after the non-depressors and a Low after depressors is 23 Hz lower than after non-depressors. E. D. Maho, J. F. & A.-M. ygis Bantu peoples | Britannica Figure 3.1 Shona S10 and Kalanga S16 are also marked by the occurrence of a type of labialisation co-produced with alveolar fricatives which have led to these segments being named whistled, or whistling fricatives (Doke 1931a, Bladon et al. R. The most detailed study remains that of Traill et al. M. Gick, B. (eds. (1996) The Sounds of the Worlds Languages. Fang A75 vowel formant means. In Zulu S42, the phonetic effects of depressor consonants on pitch differ from pitch lowering effects caused by implosive consonants (Chen & Downing 2011). N. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press. (1974) Introduction to the Speech Sounds and Speech Sound Changes of Tsonga. Zsiga Recording courtesy of Constance Kutsch Lojenga. 26(1): 314. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press. Figure 3.30 (1994) A Linguistic Analysis of Northern Sotho. , & In (eds. Traill, A. High front vowels condition tap allophones of /l/ in Ganda JE15 (Myers 2015) and Tsonga S53 (Bennett & Lee 2015), and of /r/ in the Washili variety of Ngazidja G44a (Patin 2013). Fisch, M. Bostoen, K. Riera Variations in the structure of seven-vowel systems occur which are similar to those of the five-vowel systems. Lexical stems have a system of seven oral vowels but only five nasal vowels. Makuya In Journal of the International Phonetic Association & Sands This is usually discussed as a contrast between advanced and retracted (or neutral) tongue root position, i.e., ATR. (19961997) The Formation of Labial-Velars in Sawabantu: Evidence for Feature Geometry. A vertical white dotted line has been added to facilitate comparison between the two images. (1987) Acoustic and Perceptual Consequences of Vowel-to-Vowel Coarticulation in Three Bantu Languages. Figure 3.18 , Laboissiere Thomas-Vilakatis aerodynamic data also reflect the different dynamics of the affricated and abrupt clicks. Nine-vowel languages in the Mbam group, such as Mmala A62B and Baca A621, have a contrast between /e/ and // not found in the eight-vowel systems. She found that [ATR] vowels with a constricted voice quality tend to have higher center of gravity values, while [+ATR] vowels with a hollow quality have lower center of gravity values (Starwalt 2008: 441). Special attention is paid to consonants with complex articulations, including clicks and the so-called whistling fricatives. It is hoped that the brief discussions of selected issues here will encourage more attention to be paid to phonetic aspects of these languages. Figure 3.30 Hombert, J.-M. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan System. & . , (2011) Articulatory and Acoustic Characteristics of Whistled Fricatives in Changana. Kula, N. C. shows very clearly that independent tongue root adjustment does not contribute to the distinctions between any members of the front vowel set /i e /, nor the back vowel set /u o /. 32(1): 97111. Prieto Rialland It is clear that Greenberg is dealing with an entirely different kind of time and relationship than that relevant for Common Bantu. ), Tones and Tunes. Clem There are several ways of indicating the same click following IPA principles, e.g., /, , / are equivalent ways of representing a voiced (post-)alveolar click. R. A. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 2016) and Fwe K402 (Gunnink 2016). Handbook of African Languages By M. A. Bryan. (1997) The Dispersion-Focalization Theory of Vowel Systems. The 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS XVII), Hong Kong, August 1721, 2011, 14581461. Sands The articulatory contacts can then be examined using stylised displays such as those in African Languages and Cultures Bostoen, K. Amsterdam: Institute for Functional Research into Language and Language Use. Spectrogram of the Nyamwezi F22 word /apo/ basket. See text for discussion of the phonetic segmentation. Tswana S31 has a voiceless uvular affricate and voiceless uvular fricative (Bennett et al. Updates? & Sands, B. (2001) The two vs of Giryama. Ladefoged Mbuub The Bantu languages are spoken in a very large area, including most of Africa from southern Cameroon eastward to Kenya and southward to the southernmost tip of the continent. J. Journal of West African Languages N. Van de Velde, M. van Oostendorp, M. (2002) describe it as an unreleased voiced palatal implosive [] before a voiceless stop or affricate, e.g., in [paka] moth. MRI scans indicate that this segment is appropriately viewed as a hyperarticulation of the vowel /i/. . Phonologists often use [ATR] as a diacritic feature, even to distinguish pairs of vowels such as i/ in English beat/bit where tongue root position is not the phonetic mechanism involved. C. T. N. net. (CASAS Book Series, No. Figure 3.11 Figure 3.25 The tongue surface appears as a curved white line. K. Their findings show that participants perform better in syllable awareness tasks than in segment awareness. 2002, Bostoen 2008). This is also the pattern predicted by computational models of vowel system structure from Liljencrants and Lindblom (1972) to Schwartz et al. F. Baumbach, E. J. M. Spectrogram of the Xhosa S41 word caca // be clear spoken by Sizwe Satyo, a male speaker of Xhosa. Figure 3.1 Rialland In Northern Sotho S32, however, there is speaker variation in the position of the F0 peak, which may occur somewhere between the second and the third syllable, counting from the high-tone-bearing, verbstem initial syllable (Zerbian 2009). Myers, S. (2009) On Pitch Lowering Not Linked to Voicing: Nguni and Shona Group Depressors. *CVCV items have become monosyllabic in Fang, the V2 in these cases is often not the *V2 of the reconstructed form. (2015) Prehistoric Language Contact in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Area: Khoisan Influence on Southwestern Bantu Languages. Gieseke, S. In Downstep affects the second of two adjacent High tones in Tswana S31 (Zerbian & Kgler 2015) and Bemba M42 (Kula & Hamann 2016). A. Louw, 5991. I must now turn to a more detailed consideration of one Greenberg's language families and the word-lists which appear to be basic evidence. Figure 3.4 , Most Bantu languages are reported as having two series of plosives, voiced and voiceless, and this follows the Proto-Bantu reconstruction of Meeussen (1967). Nchimbi, A. S. A. (2006) Just Put Your Lips Together and Blow? The relationship between the seven vowels of Vove B305 is notably different, as demonstrated in Clicks are also found in Manyo (Gciriku) K332, Sambyu K331, Kwangali K33, Mbukushu K333 and Fwe K402 (Baumbach 1997, Mhlig 1997, Gunnink et al. Schadeberg By continuing to use the site . Miller et al. (2013) Paralinguistic Mechanisms of Production in Human beatboxing: A Real-Time Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. 1989, Pongweni 1990). For individuals learning English as a second language, it is common for the phonemic system of their first language to influence the production of sounds in English. This study of Changana S53 whistling fricatives underscores the fact that the phonetic realisation of a cross-linguistically rare sound may differ from one language to the next. 2015). (1987), we understand true depression to consist of a special laryngeal posture consistent with very low pitch co-produced with the consonant it is associated with. Because the insert does not cover the soft palate, this closure cannot be observed on the EPG record at this time. Figure 3.7 A. In this variety, some speakers fail to devoice, and others devoice intervocalically as well as after nasals (Zsiga et al. A. (1945) A Preliminary Study of the Lexicological Influence of the Nguni Languages on Southern Sotho. Elderkin UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics Zulu S42 and Xhosa S41 have dental //, alveolar lateral // and apical post-alveolar // click types. K. W. D. Africana Linguistica Soquet . , however, the dorsal burst has a higher amplitude than the anterior click burst. The Classification of the Bantu Languages. In However, as was observed long ago by Doke (1931b, 1931a), the phonetic patterns vary quite considerably across the different varieties of Shona S10. & eBook ISBN: 9781315755946 Adobe Hume Paulian, C. P. A. 42: 175187. For the purposes of this volume, originally published in 1954, two southern zones of Bantu have been included - south of the Zambesi and east of the Kalahari. 4: 109132. This third pronunciation was characterised by one of the speakers as being more typical of speakers of 50 or more years of age. Yeyi R41 has eight different accompaniments (Fulop et al. Bonny Sands, Print publication date: February 2019 G. G. (2008) Bantu Spirantization: Morphologization, Lexicalization and Historical Classification. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, PhD dissertation. Brenzinger, M. & South African Journal of African Languages also illustrates the fact that depression is not necessarily associated with voicing as both /h/ and /h/ are voiceless (Downing & Gick 2001, Downing 2009). Compare the spacing of Xhosa vowels with those of Kalanga S16, shown in (forthcoming) Click Loss and Click Insertion in Fwe. Ndendeule N101 has no long vowels and no lengthening. Figure 3.21 , Downing, L. J. J. The release of a lateral click is also affricated, occurring initially through a narrow channel quite far back, as shown in frame 170 and continuing in frame 180. A. Thus, a click can be accompanied by simple glottal closure, by modal or breathy voicing, by open vocal folds, or by use of the ejective mechanism. Figure 3.6 /, //) (Fulop et al. J. I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: Table 3.1 Pholia & 1111-1120 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the School of Oriental and African Studies South-West and South-East Bantu languages with clicks. Book Description. (1981) A Handbook of the Venda Language. K. F. Like most linguistic maps, this map represents a somewhat fictitious ethnographic idealisation not corresponding precisely with any exact time or population distribution. Differences in lip posture appear to enhance the contrast between labio-dental /f v/ and labial fricatives / / in Kwangali K33 and in Manyo K332 (Ladefoged 1990). In these words there is noticeably breathy phonation during part of the consonant and at the vowel onset which is transcribed as []. Miller, A. Wright, R. Mbalangwe K401 has clicks, but whether it is a sociolect of Subiya K42 (Maho 1998: 51) or of Yeyi (Baumbach 1997: 307) is unclear. Voen Figure 3.27 ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 285320. Bantu orthographies usually do not indicate these alternations, unless subsequent developments have created a contrast between, say, /b/ and //, or /b/ and //. (1990) Shona Velarization: Complex Consonants or Complex Onsets? Mabuta A. It is estimated that some 300 to 350 million people, or one in three Africans, are Bantu speakers. Kwasio A81 pharyngealised vowels differ significantly in vowel quality compared to their non-pharyngealised counterparts. Final High or rising intonations are found in Ganda JE15, Chewa N31b and Saghala E74b, while final High-Low or High-falling intonations are found in Jita JE25. 2006), as seen for the ATR /e/ and RTR /e/ vowels in parts a) and b) of Ejective stops and affricates are more rarely found in the Bantu languages, although they occur as variants of the unaspirated voiceless stops in languages of the South, especially in post-nasal contexts. Kula Gunnink, H. In the Gur language Minyanka, the pharyngeal fricative [] is a variant of // (Dombrowsky-Hahn 1999: 52). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Narayanan Fwe vowel formant means according to measurements by the second author on recordings made available by Hilde Gunnink. , , R. W. P. Source: Recording made available by Hilde Gunnink. 27(3/4): 8396. Kapule David (2011) All Depressors Are Not Alike: A Comparison of Shanghai Chinese and Zulu. Plausibly, the Vove B305 vowel pairs differ phonetically in pharynx width, which is consistent with the auditory impression they create, while the Kalanga S16 pairs differ in height and to a lesser degree in backness, which is consistent with the auditory impression they create. Ndinga-Koumba-Binza, H. S. Figure 3.22 Recordings made by the first author of two other female speakers of Kalanga S16, one from Francistown in Botswana and one from Zimbabwe, did not replicate the pattern suggested by Mathangwane. ), Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of African Linguistics, Cologne, 1721 August 2009, 533543. South African Journal of African Languages (2002) Phonetic Characteristics of an Unexploded Palatal Implosive in Hendo. In Manyo K332, clicks are mostly dental, however, with a broad individual variation (Mhlig 1997). Thoughts Prompted by Bilabial and Labiodental Fricatives. In Provisions have to be made for the special effects of depressor consonants on tone in Nguni languages. , Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. In These seven prosodic types do not account for all of the details of the individual languages. (ed. Both languages have contrasts of vowel quantity and compensatory lengthening of vowels before prenasalised stops, but there are interesting differences between the two. 2002, Malambe 2015), but Dogil and Roux (1996) argue that ejectives and clicks in Xhosa S41 are more resistant to coarticulation than other consonants. & (2016) Aspects of the Intonational Phonology of Bs. Stewart, J. M. (ed. Liu Meynadier . Starwalt, C. & (2011) Notes on Nyokon Phonology (Bantu A.45, Cameroon). Fonetik 2012, 15th Swedish Phonetics Conference, May 30June 1, University of Gothenburg, 7376. Rialland Spiss, C. Harmonically related pairs are noted by the use of the same symbol with and without a -ATR diacritic. Despite the fact that the lexical tone after the depressor is high (Rycroft 1981), the onset F0 is about 30 Hz lower than the low tone onset after the non-depressor, and a rapid pitch fall begins during the vowel which precedes the depressor. In The 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS XVII), Hong Kong, August 1721, 2011, 17261729. One of the most striking things about clicks in Bantu is the lack of respect for place distinctions when few categorical contrasts exist. Downing, L. J. 15(4): 186191. Blench, R. Paper presented at the 46th Colloquium on African Languages and Linguistics, Leiden. Demolin, D. Nordic Journal of African Studies A plot of vowel distribution in Nyamwezi F22 is shown in EPG frames of a lateral click spoken by a male Zulu S42 speaker. Dashed vertical lines mark the onset and offset of the bilabial closure. & Namaseb Cambridge; Oxford: Blackwell. M. C. (eds. (1993) The Effects of Implosives on Pitch in SiSwati. Braver, A. Letele, G. L. Journal of Phonetics Roux, J. C. (1990) Ralisations tonales et contraines segmentales en fang. , (eds. Here a pair of vowels in the front and a pair of vowel in the back have such low values of F1 that they are all appropriately considered to be high vowels. (1959) A Grammar of Northern Transvaal Ndebele. Philippson (2003) Kilimanjaro Bantu (E60 and E74). Myers, S. and & Each zone . (2005) Phonetic Analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu Using South African Speech Databases. These studies also address several issues in the relation between intonation and tone. M. Faytak, M. (2007) A Qualitative and Quantitative Study of Zulu Affricates. Spectrogram of Kalanga S16 [hapka] ampit, spoken by a female speaker from Zimbabwe. & MALCOLM The Classification of the Bantu Languages. Press; London, New Miller, A. It is noteworthy that none of the Bantu languages of East Africa appear to have acquired clicks from the surviving or former languages of this area with clicks (Maddieson et al. Ndana, Ndana Seifert Louw, J. S. Figure 3.2 Languages which lost clicks entirely include Northern Ndebele of South Africa S408 and Lozi K21 (Ziervogel 1959, Gowlett 1989, Skhosana 2009), though it seems some Northern Ndebele S408 speakers are borrowing clicks back from Zulu S42. This gesture may become associated with any class of consonants and thus is capable of becoming itself an independent phonological entity deployed for grammatical effect as in the depression without depressors described by Traill (1990). In Zulu S42, implosive [] tends to have a shorter closure duration and lower amplitude burst than plosive [b] (Naidoo 2010). L. 2017: 20, Gunnink forthcoming), and may have even been lost where they were once attested. Figure 3.32 Journal of Phonetics Figure 3.21 R. K. F. ), Prosodic Categories: Production, Perception and Comprehension, 243265. Faytak (2014) reconstructs back vowels *u, *, *o for the Central Ring group of Grassfields Bantu languages. ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 365392. P. Journal of Phonetics Ebobiss Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 7: 270414. Speakers wear a thin custom-made acrylic insert moulded to the shape of their upper teeth and hard palate in which a number of electrodes are embedded which sense contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. There are currently approximately 50 million speakers of Swahili (Hinnebusch, 1979), of which 2 million are native speakers (the remainder Chichewa is a Bantu language spoken principally in the area of Africa lying in the Great Rift Valley. (1995) Issues in the Phonology and Orthography of Chopi (ciCopi S 61). M. (1982) Fonetika Tabasaranskogo jazyka. Hendrikse (2012) Acoustic Properties of Implosives in Bantu Mpiemo. & The verb also carries the subject and object prefixes. Zerbian, S. 23(4): 459474. Demolin et al. & Bastin, Y. Figure 3.31 27: 6580. (eds. Davey, A. Bokamba, E. G. Kisseberth, C. W. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics. The word papyrus may also be articulated with a velar stop in place of the click [rukoma], as seen in B. & Proceedings of the North Eastern Linguistic Society Dental and alveolar implosives and clicks may display constriction patterns that differ from those of corresponding pulmonic stops. Phonetica Hualde Waveform of the middle part of the Tonga S62 word // father, illustrating the increasing amplitude of voicing during the implosive. A particularly rare phenomenon reported in Hendo C82 involves the class 5 prefix, which is actually the reflex of the Proto-Bantu augment *di- followed by the noun prefix *i- (cf. G.-M. Examples are given in (1997) Essai sur la phonologie panchronique des parlers fang du Gabon et ses implications historiques. Mickey 38(4): 604615. & 2014:165). In The Scottish Consortium for ICPhS 2015 (ed. The Classification of African Languages (2007) Unresolved Issues in the Representation and Phonetic Description of Click Articulation in Xhosa and Zulu. Fragment C is the voiced portion of the vowel /a/. Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. A. ga] dog spoken by a male speaker. L. J. Schulz, S. A. Y. Fuchs Executive Director, Summer Institute of Linguistics Ltd., High Wycombe, England. (eds.) ), EUROSPEECH 2001 Scandinavia, 7th European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology, 2nd INTERSPEECH Event, September 37, 2001, Aalborg Congress and Culture Centre, Aalborg-Denmark: Proceedings, 651654. Bostoen (2009b) Rarefaction Gestures and Coarticulation in Mangetti Dune !Xung clicks. Dental and lateral clicks are sometimes called noisy, affricated, or pre-affricated (Roux 2007), while the (post-)alveolar is described as abrupt or unaffricated. Palatal clicks in Yeyi R41 are somewhat fricated (Fulop et al. Emily Africana Linguistica Ian Maddieson , , For instance, the number of High tones which may surface in a word or a stem may be limited to one and prominent peaks tend to occur in a predictable position, often the penult (Downing 2010). Table 3.2 Miller 2007, Miller et al. Clicks have also been reported to occur in Chopi S61 (Bailey 1995) and in the Mzimba variety of Tumbuka N21 (Moyo 1995). Librarian resources New Proposals for the Phonological Inventory of Proto-Bantu. In Zulu, for instance, the lexical function is shown in the contrast between yng doctor and yng moon or yl refuse and yl begin. The grammatical function is illustrated in mnt person and mnt it is a person or nghlnz I wash and nghlnz I washing (the participial form). Zerbian, S. (1993) Splitting the Mora. The Structure of a Bantu Language with Special Reference to Swahili, or Form and Function through Bantu Eyes Author(s): E. O. Ashton Source: Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. , 8, No. (PDF) Review of 'The Bantu Languages, second edition' The question of the role of ATR interacts with the question of the nature of the high vowels, as the *super-high/*high contrast might have been an expression of an ATR contrast or transformed into one in daughter languages. Philippson 38(1): 825. ), Proceedings of Laboratory Phonology 9, 643656. Maphalala, Z. Andy Malambe, G. B. & M. (2009) NUGL Online: The Online Version of the New Updated Guthrie List, a Referential Classification of the Bantu Languages (4 Juni 2009) (Available online at. 1987). Articulatory positions of six of the vowels of Fang A75 (variety of Bitam). It is possible that phonetic studies of other South-West Bantu click languages will reveal additional click accompaniments. The pharyngealised vowel is longer than the plain vowel, which reflects the origin of the pharyngealisation from a reduced velar stops in C2 position in roots of the shape C1VC2V (Duke & Martin 2012: 220). In This pattern is typical of that found in vowel systems where the back series is distinguished by degrees of height with no other factors being significantly involved. van der Merwe Maddieson, I. Redford, M. A. (eds. ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 195222. 8: 159198. Another nine-vowel Bantu language is Liko D201 (De Wit 2015: 45). (2013) The Impact of Khoesan on Southern Bantu. (2015) On Medumba Bilabial Trills and Vowels. & Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phonology , Hinnebusch Twelve Bantu languages are spoken by more than five million people, including Rundi, Rwanda, Shona, Xhosa, and Zulu. Guthrie classification of Bantu languages , & Naidoo 2007), which is auditorily reminiscent of a lateral click. Nurse, D. Mkanganwi, K. G. I: 2732. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter. Fuchs, S. (eds. An acoustic plot of these vowels is given in In , As a rough rule of thumb, vowels with a first formant lower than 400 Hz may be considered high vowels in a female voice. Rwanda JD61 contrasts long and short vowels yet also has vowel lengthening before NC as well as after a consonant-glide sequence (Myers 2005). Yao P21 has a long/short contrast and significant compensatory lengthening so that vowels before prenasalised stops are as long as underlying long vowels and have more than double the duration of short vowels. Source: Recording made by Peter Ladefoged in 1979 and archived at the UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive (. ), The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, Chapter 14. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics Though cross-linguistically rare, clicks are used by millions of people speaking various Bantu languages. Bond Mumin (2007) Guttural Vowels and Guttural Coarticulation. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. A majority of Bantu languages have a tonal distinction of High and Low tones, which often may combine into contour tones. (1999) The Phonetic Status of the Labial Flap. Idiatov Post-alveolar clicks have the greatest rarefaction, lateral clicks the least, perhaps because the contra-lateral bracing of the tongue in the lateral clicks may constrain the amount of tongue-center lowering that is possible. Figure 3.5 ), Turbulent Sounds: An Interdisciplinary Guide, 245279. Egert, M. , 54: 471486. shows the production of a dental click. The vowels of the five-vowel systems are therefore usually transcribed as /i e a o u/ and the seven-vowel systems are most often transcribed as /i e a o u/ (Hyman 1999). Maddieson, I. Roux D. Narrowing the pharynx raises the first formant, other things being equal. In M. ), A Survey of Word Accentual Patterns in the Languages of the World, 381427.